Dakkhini, also known as Deccani (Urdu), is a dialect of the Urdu language spoken in the Deccan region of southern India, centered on the city of Hyderabad, in the state of Andhra Pradesh. There is an extensive literature in this dialect, but it has fallen out of use in recent times.

Dakhani, also known as Dakkhani, Dakhni or Deccani is spoken in the Deccan plateau area of India. Just as Urdu developed in Delhi, Dakhni developed in South India due to the mixing of various Indian based languages and Persian based languages. The term Dakhani is perhaps an umbrella for a group of dialects spoken by certain communities of Hindus & Muslims in the Deccan region. Thus, Dakhani dialects are an amalgam of Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Telegu, Arabic, Persian and Turkish.

Deccani or Dakhini is the lingua franca of the muslims of South India, chiefly living in Hyderabad and further south. Though it is considered as a dialect of Urdu, it constitutes the traits of a different language in its own sense. Deccani is widely spoken across the South Indian peninsula with subtle changes in the dialect as you go down south away from Hyderabad. This tongue is used extensively in the spoken form; when it comes to writing and literary work, on the other hand, the original Urdu language is made use of.

Urdu writing in its various primitive forms can be traced to Muhammad Urfi (Tadhkirah -1228 AD), Amir Khusro (1259-1325 AD) and Kwaja Muhammad Husaini (1318-1422 AD).

As Urdu started flourishing in the kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur, the earliest writings in Urdu are in the Dakhni (Deccani) dialect. The Sufi saints were the earliest promoters of the Dakhni Urdu. The Sufi-saint Hazrat Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz is considered to be the first prose writer of Dakhni Urdu and some treatises like Merajul Ashiqin and Tilawatul Wajud are attributed to him but his authorship is open to doubt. The first literary work in Urdu is that of Bidar poet Fakhruddin Nizami's mathnavi 'Kadam Rao Padam Rao' written between 1421 and 1434 A.D. Kamal Khan Rustami (Khawar Nama) and Nusrati (Gulshan-e-Ishq, Ali Nama and Tarikh-e-Iskandari) were two great poets of Bijapur. Muhammed Quli Qutb Shah, the greatest of Golconda Kings who was a distinguished poet, is credited with introducing a secular content to otherwise predominantly religious Urdu poetry. His poetry focused on love, nature and social life of the day.

The Gulsham-i-Ishq is a romance written in Deccani Urdu by the Bijapur court poet Mulla Nusrati for Sultan Ali Adil Shah II in 1657. The work, incorporating words in Persian, Arabic, and Marathi, recounts the love story of a Hindu prince, Manohara, and embodies themes typical of the Indian romantic tradition. The remarkable diversity of language and culture apparent in the book derives in part from the thriving sea trade that existed between the Deccan and the Turkish, Persian, and Arab populations. Such a large and artistically exquisite manuscript probably was made for a wealthy Urdu-speaking nobleman of the Mughal-controlled Deccan. The scene shows Raja Bikram seated beneath a tree and holding a large bundle of clothes. Seven angels frolicking in a fountain gesture to him before they assist him on his way to Kanakgir. This work is an excellent example of the technical refinement that typifies much Deccani painting

Deccani Urdu, as spoken in South India and part of Maharashtra, is district from the North
Indian Urdu in accent and usage. It marvellously shortens sentences and provides pragmatic substitutes for long
words.

Among the other important writers of Dakhni Urdu were Shah Miranji Shamsul Ushaq (Khush Nama and Khush Naghz), Shah Burhanuddin Janam, Mullah Wajhi (Qutb Mushtari and Sabras), Ghawasi (Saiful Mulook-O- Badi-Ul-Jamal and Tuti Nama), Ibn-e-Nishati (Phul Ban) and Tabai (Bhahram-O-Guldandam). Wajhi's Sabras is considered to be a masterpiece of great literary and philosophical merit. Vali Mohammed or Vali Dakhni (Diwan) was one of the most prolific Dakhni poets of the medieval period. He developed the form of the ghazal. When his Diwan (Collection of Ghazals and other poetic genres) reached philosophical, the poets of Delhi who were engaged in composing poetry in Persian language, were much impressed and they also started writing poetry in Urdu, which they named Rekhta.

Marsiya Khwani

Urdu marasi, or elegies, have not only rendered to the Urdu language literary and poetic beauty, but also a medium of religious, cultural, and intellectual expression. Although some Urdu marasi deal with topics other than the seventh-century battle of Karbala, most of them have focused on the events that paved the path to this battle and the agonizing aftermath of this event. In this paper, I will discuss the salient characteristics of the genre of marsiya and the variations of the Karbala theme within this tradition according to changing social, cultural, and political contexts.

In order to comprehend Urdu marasi, it is essential to glance briefly at the historical and social milieu that nourished this genre. The tradition of marsiya has its roots in the pre-Islamic Arab and Persian worlds, where human sentiments and pathos were expressed in form of elegiac poetry.[3] This tradition continued after the advent of Islam, with many companions of the Prophet Muhammad, such as Umar, arranging for elegies to be written about their deceased family members. In 680 C.E., on the bank of the river Euphrates, Hussain, a grandson of Muhammad, along with his seventy-one companions, was killed in a deserted place, Karbala, for refusing to pay allegiance to the Ummayad ruler, Yazid. This event became a major theme for the marasi of the ensuing centuries. According to some traditional beliefs, the first marasi were recited by Hussain's sister, Zainab, and son, Zain-al-Abedin, in the aftermath of Hussain's martyrdom. There were, however, severe restrictions imposed on such mourning ceremonies since the Ummayad rulers could not afford to foster empathy for the family of the Prophet.
When Shi'ismbecame the official religion of Iran in the fifteenth century, Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp, patronized poets who wrote about the tragedy of Karbala, and the genre of marsiya, according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids."[7] The most well-known fifteenth-century Persian marsiya writer was Muhtasham Kashani (d. 1587), whose works consequently became a source of elegy emulation for Iranians as well as Indian poets of ensuing generations.

Persian and Arabic languages and literatures had a momentous influence on Indo-Muslim culture in general and on the evolution of Urdu language and literature in particular. The Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi dynasties of South India (Deccan), predominantly Twelver Shi'is in religious persuasion, patronized

IThe Chakki-Nama
Dakhni (an early South Indian dialect of Urdu) marasi.

Woman singing Chaki namma while grinding on small millstone
Although Persian marasi of Muhtasham Kashani were still recited, the Adil Shahi
Sahi rulers felt the need to render the Karbala tragedy in the language of common Muslims.
Chakki-namas were Sufi poems sung by women of medieval Bijapur as they ground millet at the chakki, or grindstone.
First was God's name, and then His qualities
In my mind I keep the name, and with each breath
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah
God Himself from the hidden treasure
Has created the whole world artistically.
He has created it with His own power.
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah God Himself came out from the hidden treasure
And showed Himself in the guise of the Prophet.
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah
In the presence of God, the Prophet is chief
Whose teachings have given us support in both worlds.
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah
The Prophet's khalifa is Ali, who is dear to Him,
And whose disciples are our pirs.
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah
Our pir has taken our hands in his;
He has given us connections whole-heartedly.
May he keep this connection forever.
Say la ilaha, dwell in il'Allah
n the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi kingdom of Deccan, marasi flourished, especially under the patronage of Ali Adil Shah and Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahmarsiya writers themselves, and poets such as Ashraf Biyabani. Urdu marasi written during this period are still popular in South Indian villages. One such marsiya expresses the pathos of the moment when Imam Hussain's loved ones bid him farewell:
Farewell, O King of martyrs, (Alwidayu)
Farewell, O Ruler of both worlds,
..................................

Mustafa [the Prophet] mourns for you in Paradise,
like Yaqub mourned in the aftermath of his separation with Yusuf.[11]
The Yaqub-Yusuf motif,[12] which by no means is restricted to marsiya, recurs over and over in this genre since the son of Imam Hussain, Ali Akbar, was supposedly as handsome as the Qu'ranic Yusuf, and since the Imam's distress after the martyrdom of his son was analogous to Yaqub's sorrow after his son parted from him. The North Indian marsiya writers used similar motifs and metaphors when the centre of Urdu literature moved to the North after the kingdoms of the Deccan were annexed by the Mughals.

As Mughal power began to wane in the aftermath of the rule of Aurangzeb (1706), other autonomous Muslim powers sprung up in India. The Navabs of Avadh, Twelver Shi'is and patrons of Urdu literature and poetry, provided auspices for the sublimation of the marsiya genre in North India.

URDU POETRY
Urdu was ordered to be used as an official language by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur (1580-1672) and was in use In Golcunda also at the time of Abdullab Qutb Shah (1626-1672). The language was known in the Deccan as Hindavi or Deccani right up to the dissolution of Adil Shahi kingdom in 1686 and the Qutb Shahi kingdom a year later.
URDU POETRY can be broadly divided into three eras. The first period was that when Urdu had the Hindu imprint on it. There are several hundred poets belonging to that period, and the prominent names include Quli Qutab Shah (1580-1611), Hassan Shauki, Ali Adil Shah Sani Shahi, and Shahi Bejapuri. In that period, Urdu was called "Rekh'tah" (Dialect of women). These earliest poets followed the style of Hindu poetry where a woman's feelings were expressed in a woman's idiom. I am using the term Hindu instead of Hindi because while Muslims also inhabited the Sub-continent (Hindustan) at that time, the poetry predominantly reflected the Hindu way of life, bearing their religious teachings and culture.

Like any other movent, feminism bears a variety of ideas. There is no single feminist ideology. The divisions commonly accepted among feminist ideologies do not make the views of these feminist poetesses different or contradictory. There are infinite similarities in different feminist assertions. The fundamental and basic ideas and concepts are shared among all of them. The definition that covers all feminist beliefs and attitudes, as given by David .

History of Marsia and Noha Khwani

Urdu marsiay and nohay, or elegies, have not only rendered to the Urdu language literary and poetic beauty, but also a medium of religious, cultural, and intellectual expression. Although some Urdu marsiay and nohay deal with topics other than the seventh-century battle of Karbala, most of them have focused on the events that paved the path to this battle and the agonizing aftermath of this event.

In order to comprehend Urdu marsiay and nohay, it is essential to glance briefly at the historical and social milieu that nourished this genre. The tradition of marsiya has its roots in the pre-Islamic Arab and Persian worlds, where human sentiments and pathos were expressed in form of elegiac poetry. This tradition continued after the advent of Islam, with many companions of the Prophet Muhammad, such as Umar, arranging for elegies to be written about their deceased family members. In 680 C.E., on the bank of the river Euphrates, Hussain, a grandson of Muhammad, along with his seventy-one companions, was killed in a deserted place, Karbala, for refusing to pay allegiance to the Umayyad ruler, Yazid. This event became a major theme for the marsia's and noha's of the ensuing centuries. As history indicates the first noha was recited by Imam Hussain's sister, Janab-e-Zainab, and son, Imam Zain-al-Abedin, in the aftermath of Imam Hussain's martyrdom. There were, however, severe restrictions imposed on such mourning ceremonies since the Umayyad rulers could not afford to foster empathy for the family of the Prophet.

Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp, patronized poets who wrote about the tragedy of Karbala, and the genre of marsiya, according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids." The most well-known fifteenth-century Persian marsiya writer was Muhtasham Kashani (d. 1587), whose works consequently became a source of elegy emulation for Iranians as well as Indian poets of ensuing generations.

Persian and Arabic languages and literatures had a momentous influence on Indo-Muslim culture in general and on the evolution of Urdu language and literature in particular. The Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi dynasties of South India (Deccan), predominantly Shia'is in religious persuasion, patronized Dakhni (an early South Indian dialect of Urdu) marsiay and nohay. Although Persian marsiay and nohay of Muhtasham Kashani were still recited, the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi rulers felt the need to render the Karbala tragedy in the language of common Muslims. In the Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi kingdom of Deccan, marsiay and nohay flourished, especially under the patronage of Ali Adil Shah and Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, marsiya writers themselves, and poets such as Ashraf Biyabani. Urdu marsiay and nohay written during this period are still popular in South Indian villages.

The Yaqub-Yusuf motif, which by no means is restricted to marsiya, recurs over and over in this genre since the son of Imam Hussain, Ali Akbar, was supposedly as handsome as the Qu'ranic Yusuf, and since the Imam's distress after the martyrdom of his son was analogous to Yaqub's sorrow after his son parted from him. The North Indian marsiya writers used similar motifs and metaphors when the centre of Urdu literature moved to the North after the kingdoms of the Deccan were annexed by the Mughals.

Contrary to popular perceptions, Urdu marsiay and nohay are not confined to the gatherings of Muharram but are recited throughout the year in ceremonies preceding weddings and death anniversaries. However, in the kingdom of Avadh, during the months of Muharram and Safar, marsiay and nohay were recited on a daily basis in the majalis (gatherings to commemorate the tragedy of Karbala) held twice a day in imambareh (places of gathering for the majalis). The adab (etiquette) of these majalis was such that the audiences would sit facing the taziyah (models of the shrines of the martyrs of Karbala), and listen to the narration of the popularly perceived events of Karbala in Persian; they would then hear the Urdu marsiya written for that particular day. The recitation of marsiay and nohay was also considered an art, and the writers were not always considered the best orators to generate pathos among the audiences. The Navabs thus invited effective reciters (marsiya khwan and noha khwan) who had a considerable following themselves. After the recitation of marsiay and nohay, the family of the Prophet was praised and the enemies of this family rebuked. The majlis would close with self-flagellation. Keeping this historical and cultural background of Urdu marsiya tradition in mind, it is apposite to delve into the salient characteristics of this genre.

The main purpose of Urdu marsiay and nohay is to praise the heroes of Islam, who fought on the side of Imam Hussain in Karbala, and to induce empathy for the family of Ali and Fatima. The metaphors utilized in Avadh, Delhi, and the surrounding vicinity to glorify the accomplishments of early Islamic heroes in Urdu marsiay and nohay were similar to the metaphors and similes used in qasaid, or odes, written in praise of Indian rulers. Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869) described the "King of Martyrs," Imam Hussain, by using metaphors, similar to the ones he used in his odes:

The glory and jewel of faith, Hussain Ibn-e Ali,
who shall be called the candle of the gathering of grandeur.
The fountain of paradise (Salsabil) is in the path of those,
who call him the thirsty martyr of Karbala.
It is a strange occurrence that an enemy of Islam,
battles with Ali and is considered only to be mistaken.
After Ali there is Hassan, and after Hassan there is Hussain,
How can I exonerate any person who has mistreated them.

The martyrdom of Imam Husain and his companions at Karbala is observed with solemnity and religious fervour through the Muslim world during Muharram, the fist month of the Islamic calendar. One of the modes of expressing grief during this period is the recital of marsiyas by zakirs and professional musicians, which create cathartic impact on the mourners.
"A marsiya", writes Dr. Muhammad Sadiq in his book A History of Urdu Literature, "is a lament on the death of a friend, relative, or patron, especially a nobleman or a king. In Urdu, it is used in the specialized sense of an account of the tribulations of Imam Husain, and his family and followers, which culminated in the tragedy of Karbala".

Elegiac and quasi-religious in format and content, it is one of the three most sought-after genres of medieval Urdu poetry. The other two were the qasida and the ghazal. The marsiya was given a major boos in its popularity by the patronage of the Nawabs of Oudh after the fall of Delhi as the principal seat of Muslim Empire in South Asia.

Whereas a number of classical poets did write marsiyas, the two who took this form to almost celestial heights, undoubtedly, were Mir Anis and and his rival Mirza Dabir. With the dissipation of the authority of the Nawabs of Oudh and their elimination from the political map of India, marsiya also received a jolt. However, it is still a widely accepted mode of elegiac expressions, conveying devotional allegiance to the great Imam.

marsiya khwani, or the art of vocalizing poetry, assumed professional dimensions. Accomplished melodists, especially frontline classical vocalists, developed a style of marsiya recital anticipating that there would be great demand for it. A majority of them, however, acquired this skill as a matter of conviction, and also to enhanced its cathartic impact on their audiences.

In the beginning Dakhni was called Hindi or Hindavi. Ferishta the historian says that the official language of the southern sultanates was Hindi—meaning Dakhni.

The Pioneers of Dekhani Zaban

As per the reserach by authentic Deccani Scholar Mr.Narendra Luther he mentioned in his artcile that - The rise and development of Dakhni can be divided into two periods i.e. is the Bahmani (14th-15th Centuries), and Bijapur- Golconda Sultanates (16th-17th Centuries). The post-Golconda period was of a mere survival of the language for some time.

Sufism and Dakhni

Dakhni was used originally as a vehicle for the propagation of Sufism in the South. That tradition started with Khaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraz whose Miraj-ul-Ashaqeen was a prose treatise on mysticism. However, he had come from Delhi in 1390 AD at the age of 80 and so cannot fairly be credited with making a contribution to Dakhni at that age. Nizami who is considered the first major poet of Dakhni, wrote his epic poem called ‘Kadam Rao Padam Rao’ around 1460. By that time the language had developed a great deal. It is interesting to note that his vocabulary is full of Sanskritic words. Shah Miranji Shamshul Ushaq of Bijapur is another mystic poet. He wrote two long poems- Khush-nama and Khush-naghz are full of pathos. Their main character, a young girl has an inquiring soul whose spiritual thirst remains unquenched despite the soothing advice of her spiritual mentor. Miranji’s son Shah Burhanuddin Janam also wrote long mystical poems. He calls his language Gujri not Hindi or Hindavi which was the name given to Dakhni by others. His language too is full of Sanskrit diction both ‘tatsams (original Sanskrit words in unaltered form) and ‘tatbhavs’ (in slightly changed form). Talking of the control of the senses, Janam uses the allegory of ‘five animals in the body’:

‘Sight is kite; Ear is snake; Nose is peacock; Tongue is dog; Lust is scorpion’. (Here the nature of different animals is compared to the senses. For example, the kite snatches, and the snake’s sense of hearing, and peacock’s sense of smell is said to be very strong). He advises that one should ‘tie them up’ in order to get absorbed in the contemplation of God.

He further says that there are five thieves, which one should beware:

Anger is the thief of wisdom; Arrogance the thief of knowledge; Lassitude the thief of the prayer; Hunger the thief of fasting, and Greed the thief of holy discourse. He adds that it does not matter whether the devotee sits in a mosque or a temple so long as he is absorbed in the contemplation of God because both these places radiate His presence.

Nizami Bidri produced the first literary work in Dakhni about the year 1460 and another writer Qureshi Bidri translated the ‘Kok Shashtra’ into Dakhni under the title of ‘Bhog Bal’ in 1520 AD.

Bijapur School

After the Bahmanis, Bijapur and Golconda emerged as the two contemporary centres of Dakhni. Both had rulers which not only patronnised letters but also who are writers and poets themselves. Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1626) was perhaps the most prominent Bijapuri ruler in that regard. He was interested in classical Indian music and wrote Nauras Nama when he was not yet 30. It has 59 songs in different ragas. It is interesting to note that he starts his work with an invocation to Saraswati. He calls himself the son of Saraswati who is the goddess of learning, and Ganesh the god of all beginnings. One of his songs says:

Mata Pita, Tum mano nirmal beeb spatik sisi taas
Ibrahim Gupt ghesu ab nawaj parghat keeno dhani meri raas’

my mother and my father! You are two transparent crystals. Ibrahim was lying in oblivion. It was by your grace that he became famous. He is therefore proud of his good luck).

One of the great poets of Dakhni was Abdul, the court poet of Ibrahim Adil Shah himself. His literary work is called ‘Ibrahim Nama’. The book is about the life and grandeur of the court of his patron. He discusses the relationship of words and their meanings with a through background of Indian aesthetics.

After this synoptic view of Dakhni under the Bahmanis and in the Bijapur, we will move on to Golconda, which represented the high point of the development of the Dakhni both in prose, and in poetry.

Ghawwasi's work
Ghawwasi Ke Nuskhe
Saiful Muluk-e-Badiul Jamal
Tooti Nama
Saub Rus

Nusrati's work
Ali Nama
Gulshan-i-lshq

Shah Miranji Shamsul Ushaq
Khush Nama and Khush Naghz

For more study
Aadil Shahi Daur Ki Lisani aur Adabi Riwayat, Nusrati, Ameen uddin Ali Aala
Urdu Ki Adabi Tareekh by A.Q.Sarwari. Deccani Adab Ki Traeekh by S.M.Q.Zore
Narendra Luther - Pioneers of Deccani